Why It’s Not “Octopi” and More Tricky Plural Nouns
Basic grammar tells us that to make a noun plural, we just add an “s” at the end. But not all English words are so straightforward. In fact, there’s a whole list of them that don’t follow this convention. Many words have different origins, and that often impacts the usage.
“I have one cat, and Calyn has two cats.” This sentence contains an example of one of the most basic lessons in English grammar: To make a noun plural, add an “s.” But wait — not all English nouns are so straightforward. In fact, there’s a long list of nouns that don’t follow that convention. Often we have to memorize the exceptions because there’s no rhyme or reason to them, but for others there are good stories behind the root languages and why certain plurals get special spellings. Let’s learn more about plural nouns and their tricky spellings.
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Alternate Endings
Certain word endings consistently require more than a simple “s” to form a plural. When a singular noun ends in a “y,” the plural ends in “-ies.” For example, “city” becomes “cities,” and “baby” turns into “babies.”
If a singular noun already ends in an “s,” the plural version adds an “-es.” The same goes for many words ending in “ch,” “sh,” “z,” and “x.” The plurals of “lunch,” “wish,” “quiz,” and “mix” are “lunches,” “wishes,” “quizzes,” and “mixes,” respectively. Note the extra “z” added onto “quiz” — this sometimes happens with words ending in “s” as well (“chorus”/”chorusses” and “plus”/”plusses,” for example). Words ending in “x” are also more likely to have irregular endings.
If a noun ends in a single “f,” the plural version drops the “f” and adds “-ves.” “Wolf” becomes “wolves.” “Calf” becomes “calves.” “Loaf” becomes “loaves.” The exception to this is if the word ends in a double “f” — in that case, you just add an “s.” “Cliffs,” “cuffs,” and “mastiffs” are all regular plural nouns.
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Embrace the Irregularity
It’s nearly impossible to create an exhaustive list that includes all irregular plural nouns, but here are some examples that show just how irregular they can get.
Mouse → Mice
Goose → Geese
Fungus → Fungi
Appendix → Appendices
Ox → Oxen
Deer → Deer (Zero plurals are nouns that are spelled the same in both plural and singular forms.)
Octopus → Octopodes
Note the last example. The accepted plural of “octopus” is actually “octopuses,” but many people mistakenly give it the Latin plural ending and use “octopi.” This is incorrect because “octopus” comes from Greek. To use the classical language format, it would be “octopodes.”
This method of using a root language suffix is where many irregular plurals come from. English borrows so much from other languages that when it was all mashed together, irregularities became the norm. “Fungus” and “appendix” come from Latin, while “goose” and “ox” have Germanic origins, so these nouns retained the plural rules from their original languages.
Multiple Choice
Sometimes, though, the plural form of a word is outdated. Take “roof” — under the “f” rule explained earlier, the plural should be “rooves.” That was a commonly accepted spelling at one time, and it’s not inaccurate; it’s just not standard in modern English. Instead, we use “roofs.” This word — with its simple “s” ending — becomes an outlier by following the regular plural convention.
Animals are especially common in the world of irregular plural choices. Take your pick between “fish” and “fishes,” “shrimp” and “shrimps.” Spell-check might pick one version over the other, but both are technically correct.
Jennifer A. Freeman is the Senior Editor of Word Smarts and Word Daily. When she's not searching for a perfect synonym or reaching "Genius" level on Spelling Bee, she's playing with her Welsh Terrier in Greenville, SC.
Punctuation can add a lot of nuance to a sentence. You’re likely familiar with the basics — periods, commas, exclamation points, question marks. But we can almost guarantee you’ve never seen these wild punctuation marks in your favorite novels.
Punctuation can add a lot of nuance to a sentence. You’re likely familiar with the basics — periods, commas, exclamation points, question marks — and maybe you’re even the type who throws in the odd semicolon or em dash. If you want to venture beyond that, though, we have a treat for you. We can almost guarantee you’ve never seen these obscure punctuation marks in your favorite novels.
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You can find some of these punctuation marks in the “Special Characters” section of your preferred word processor, but others have fallen out of existence. Maybe there’s a chance you can bring them back‽
Interrobang — ‽
The concluding punctuation mark in the previous paragraph is an interrobang — the lovechild of an exclamation point and a question mark. We’re sure you’ve received text messages in which someone replied with surprise, “You did what?!” or something to that effect. That’s the perfect usage of the interrobang. Its invention is credited to a 1960s advertising executive who thought shocked, yet questioning messages would be more effective if conveyed through a single mark. “Interro” comes from the Latin for “question,” and “bang” is a proofreader’s word for the exclamation point.
Rhetorical Question Mark — ⸮
The rhetorical question mark, or irony mark, looks like a backward question mark. Henry Denham created it in 1580 for questions meant to denote irony. Its use died out shortly after, but it would certainly clear up the tone of some questions, especially in texting.
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Love Point — ⸮?
We have a poor approximation of a love point here, but the actual mark isn’t available in “Special Characters.” A true love point looks like two question marks that share a period and form a heart. It was part of a set of punctuation marks suggested by French writer Hervé Bazin in the 1960s as a way to add more nuance to writing. It’s meant to show affection from the speaker (or writer) to the receiver. It may not come up in professional emails, but it’s a nice touch for Valentine’s Day cards.
Certitude Point
The certitude point was another Bazin invention, intended to show forcefulness and conviction. It’s written as an exclamation point with a small horizontal line running through the middle of the vertical line. Imagine ALL CAPS blocks of text streamlined with an elegant certitude point instead.
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Doubt Point — ɀ̣
This Bazin invention looks like a zigzagged exclamation point. Unlike the certitude point, the doubt point is meant to express doubt in a statement. Don’t know if someone’s telling you the truth? Unsure of what you just said? The doubt point is the mark for you.
SarcMark
The SarcMark (trademarked) looks like a loose spiral with a dot in the middle, and it’s meant to show sarcasm. This punctuation mark is not a Bazin invention, but we can’t show it to you because the designer Paul Sak trademarked it. It only displays when you’ve purchased the font or plug-in. So, if you find yourself in need of great amounts of snark and sarcasm, you know where to find it.
Snark Mark — .~
The snark mark is a lot like the SarcMark, but it wasn’t created by Paul Sak and it’s not trademarked. This punctuation is a mashup of a period and a tilde (.~), and it implies that a statement has more than one literal meaning.
Asterism — ⁂
The asterism is more of a decorative mark than a punctuation mark. This asterisk triad was once used to separate book chapters, though its usage has mostly died out. Still, it’s pretty, and you might consider using it in between headings or at the end of emails.
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Exclamation and Question Commas — Ɂ̦ l̦
If you love semicolons, you’ll like these, too. The exclamation and question commas add some excitement in the middle of sentences you’re not quite ready to end. They look like exclamation and question marks with a comma at the base instead of a period. The same grammar rules that apply to semicolons apply here, but these marks will likely create more confusion than the semicolon does.
Hedera — ❧
The hedera is another decorative mark — it looks like an ivy leaf in the shape of a heart, which is appropriate because hedera means “ivy” in Latin. Its purpose was similar to that of the asterism; it signified paragraph breaks but didn’t do much else (which is probably why no one uses it anymore).
Jennifer A. Freeman is the Senior Editor of Word Smarts and Word Daily. When she's not searching for a perfect synonym or reaching "Genius" level on Spelling Bee, she's playing with her Welsh Terrier in Greenville, SC.
Learn the Correct Pronunciation of These Country Names
These country names are often mispronounced by English speakers. You may not think it’s a big deal, but getting it right is a show of respect. Learn the correct pronunciation of “Iraq” and “Moldova” and pass along the knowledge.
Take a spin around a globe. Do you recognize all of the country names? Depending on when your globe was created, some of these names might not even exist anymore. Ceylon, Mesopotamia, West Germany, Prussia, Yugoslavia, Zanzibar — none of these would appear on a modern map.
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For the countries that are still around, can you pronounce all the names? Country names are often based on native languages, and they don’t always translate easily to English. Even when the spelling of the name doesn’t differ much, the pronunciation might be very different between languages. And correct pronunciation does matter. Think about your name. If you’re a “James,” and someone constantly calls you “Jamie,” even after numerous reminders, you might think they’re being rude. When you learn a little bit about the language of a country and its proper name, you’re showing respect.
Here are five countries with names that are often mispronounced by English speakers. Once you learn about the correct pronunciations, it will be easier to pass along the knowledge. Maybe you’ll even be inspired to plan your next vacation.
Belarus
Many English speakers pronounce the name of this small country (formerly part of the USSR) as “bel-AR-us.” The name is actually pronounced “bell-uh-ROOS.” The official languages of Belarus are Belarusian and Russian; both Slavic languages have a different style of pronouncing vowels from American English. The “u” is pronounced like “oo,” and the accents tend to hit the final syllable.
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Moldova
Moldova is another former Soviet republic located in Eastern Europe. When faced with the name, English speakers tend to put the accent on the middle syllable: “mole-DOH-vuh.” Native Romanian speakers, however, spread the emphasis more equally across all three syllables: “mol-doh-vuh.” The country takes its name from the Moldova River, the site of the first capital city.
Qatar
The Middle Eastern country Qatar uses Arabic as its primary language. The sight of a “q” without an accompanying “u” can be confusing for English speakers, leading to a pronunciation of “cat-AR.” But if you pronounce the name correctly in Standard Arabic, you almost swallow the final syllable — “CUT-ter.” In some dialects, the country’s name is pronounced “KIT-ar.”
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The Maldives
You’ll find the series of islands known as the Maldives off the coast of Sri Lanka in the Indian Ocean. Americans might pronounce the country’s name by breaking it into recognizable syllables: “MAL-dives,” with an American accent elongating the final “i.” However, this final syllable is correctly pronounced with a long “e” sound: “MAL-deeves.”
The name may come from a Sanskrit phrase that means “garland islands,” referring to the general shape of the islands. Sanskrit has more open vowel sounds than American English, as well as a vowel structure somewhat similar to Spanish, so the “i” is pronounced like “ee.”
Iraq
You might be confident in your pronunciation of this Middle Eastern country’s name, but while most Americans would say “eye-RACK,” the correct pronunciation is “ee-ROCK,” with the “i” pronounced as a long “e.” The same principle applies to its neighbor Iran, which is not “eye-RAN,” but rather “ee-RON.”
Jennifer A. Freeman is the Senior Editor of Word Smarts and Word Daily. When she's not searching for a perfect synonym or reaching "Genius" level on Spelling Bee, she's playing with her Welsh Terrier in Greenville, SC.
Why do we “make do” instead of “make due,” or wait with “bated breath” rather than “baited breath”? The answers lie in the origins of these historical homophones.
Homophones are words that have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings. Some pairings have a clear distinction (“new”/”knew” and “bear”/”bare”), but there are also trickier homophones that have been baffling writers for centuries — particularly when it comes to their usage in common expressions. For example, why do we “make do” instead of “make due,” or wait with “bated breath” rather than “baited breath”? The answers lie in the origins of these historical homophones.
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Make Do
Make due
To make do with something is to get along with what is available, as in, “He needs to make do with his brother’s hand-me-down uniforms.” “Do” has many usages, but it’s often used casually to mean “something that is adequate or sufficient,” as in, “‘We’re out of tea — is coffee OK?’ ‘Yes, that’ll do!'” In the sense of “make do,” “do” refers to something serving a specific purpose.
The adjective “make-do” is a synonym for “makeshift.” It was first used this way in the 1920s, as in, “They used their blanket as a make-do shelter from the rain.”
Historically, “make do” is the correct use of this idiom, but the homonym “due” is often incorrectly written instead. “Due” has a definition of “satisfying or capable of satisfying a need,” synonymous with “adequate,” so it’s an easy mix-up with the above usage of “do.” One place it does belong is in the phrase “in due time” (meaning “eventually, at an appropriate time”).
With Bated Breath
With baited breath
“With bated breath” idiomatically means “with anticipation,” as in, “They watched the finish line with bated breath.” The phrase literally means “to hold one’s breath,” from the definition of “bated”: “to reduce the force or intensity of.” The Oxford English Dictionary attributes the first usage of the idiom to Shakepeare’s The Merchant of Venice: “Shall I bend low and in a bondman’s key / With bated breath and whispering humbleness…”
The homonym “baited” is often misused for “bated,” especially in this idiom. J.K. Rowling confused the two in the line, “The whole common room listened with baited breath” (in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban). This usage is incorrect because “baited” means “to lure, harass, attack, persecute, or entice” — none of which is the intended meaning of “with baited breath.”
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Anchors Aweigh
Anchors away
“Anchors aweigh” is a maritime phrase used when a ship is about to leave, so it makes sense that it’s often confused with “anchors away.” (No sea captains on staff here, but we assume pulling up an anchor is part of a ship leaving.)
“Aweigh” means “raised just clear of the bottom,” and is almost always used to refer to an anchor. It was first used as a nautical term in the 1620s and is later seen in an 1867 maritime dictionary called The Sailor’s Word-Book, written by naval officer William Henry Smyth: “The anchor is a-trip, or a-weigh, where the purchase has just made it break ground, or raised it clear.” One of the most famous instances of this phrase comes from the official song of the U.S. Navy, “Anchors Aweigh,” written by Naval Academy Midshipman Alfred H. Miles in 1906. The confusion comes from the homonym “away,” which is an adverb that can refer to moving from or in another direction from a certain place. Rest easy — only the most assiduous of sailors would be able to spot this mistake in written form.
Without Further Ado
Without further adieu
The correct phrase — meaning “without further delay” or “without much fuss” — is “without further ado.” It’s a playful quip often used to introduce performances or speakers. “Ado” itself can mean “heightened fuss or concern,” “time-wasting bother,” or “trouble.” It was in use at least as early as the 14th century, but Shakespeare popularized the word in his playMuch Ado About Nothing, which was first performed in 1612.
The commonly confused homonym “adieu” is a French word meaning “farewell,” as in, “I bid you adieu.” It was pulled into Middle English from the French phrase a dieu, meaning literally “to God.” “Adieu” was a popular expression of well wishes in the 15th century, around the same time that “ado” was gaining popularity, which resulted in this case of jumbled homophones.
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Whet Your Appetite
Wet your appetite
“Whet” comes from the Old English hwettan, meaning “to sharpen.” In the popular phrase “whet your appetite,” the word means “to make keen” or “to stimulate.” It has nothing to do with the homophone “wet,” but they are commonly confused because “wet” is much more familiar than “whet.”
To make things more confusing, the similar phrase “wet your whistle,” meaning “to have a drink,” does use the word “wet.” “Whistle” has been used metaphorically to refer to the mouth or throat since the 14th century, as seen in The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer: “As any jay she light was and jolly; / So was her jolly whistle well wet.”
This homophone duo has been confusing folks for centuries. There is evidence of “whetting one’s whistle” as far back as the 17th century, and “wetting one’s appetite” is a popular (albeit incorrect) phrase today. Try to remember that “wet” applies to quenching thirst, and the more unfamiliar “whet” is left to apply to the appetite.
Rein In
Reign in
“To rein in” means “to limit or control,” both literally and figuratively. Forms of the noun “rein” (referring to the leather straps to guide a horse) and the verb “rein” (referring to the act of pulling on the reins) are seen in English as early as the 14th century. One of the earliest metaphorical uses of the phrase can be seen in Shakespeare’s 1609 play about the Trojan War, Troilus and Cressida: “Spur them to ruthful work, rein them from ruth!”
Even with this long history, “reign in” has gained a foothold. “Reign” refers to a royal authority, as well as a sense of control. So not only does “reign” sound like “rein,” but it can also have a similar meaning, as in, “The king was well respected during his 50-year reign.” However, the correct use of the phrase “rein in” is solely rooted in equestrian jargon.
Rachel is a Washington, D.C.-based freelance writer. When she's not writing, you can find her wandering through a museum, exploring a new city, or advocating the importance of the Oxford comma.
The rock ‘n’ roll genre is vast and hard to pin down with any specific definition, but many music historians point to the 1951 albumRocket “88” by the Delta Cats (also known as Ike Turner’s Kings of Rhythm) as the first rock ‘n’ roll album. This record, pressed at Sam Phillips’ Memphis Recording Service, achieved a special sound thanks to a mishap on the way to the studio: An amp fell out of the band’s car, and to repair the damage, they stuffed brown paper inside. The resulting distorted buzzing sound in the guitar, along with the driving boogie melody from Ike Turner’s keys, helped build the foundation of rock ‘n’ roll. Sam Phillips’ renamed Sun Records studio continued to record Black rhythm and blues musicians through the early 1950s, but a young Elvis Presley recording at the Memphis, Tennessee, studio further progressed the genre of rock ‘n’ roll.
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Like any subculture, the world of rock ‘n’ roll is steeped in slang. The phrase “rock ‘n’ roll” itself is colloquial, traced to early usage in a 1938 song lyric: “It’s true that once upon a time / The op’ra was the thing / But today the rage is rhythm and rhyme / So won’t you satisfy my soul with a rock an’ roll.” Some words that have been around for centuries were adopted for specific uses in the music genre, while other terms came up with the music and have been pulled into our everyday lexicon. Let’s dive deeper into this soul-satisfying genre and learn about the particular lingo and slang born out of rock ‘n’ roll.
Punk
“Punk” has been in the English language for centuries, used in mostly derogatory ways to describe various types of people, but in the 1970s, it began to be attributed to a new kind of music. As a genre, punk is fast, aggressive, and unpolished, characterized by a confrontational attitude and chaotic live performances. As a word, “punk” articulates a complete lifestyle associated with the genre — one that is antiestablishment and anti-authority. Music writers fight over who coined the term, but it’s generally attributed to Dave Marsh in a 1971 issue ofCREEM Magazine.
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EP
In musical recording lingo, “EP” stands for “extended play.” It refers to a 7-inch 45 record that plays for a longer time period, or has more songs on it, than a single (see “A-side/B-side”). Eventually, “EP” came to mean any musical recording that was longer than a single, but shorter than a full-length album.
A-Side / B-Side
These terms are a bit archaic, in the sense that vinyl album recording has become more of a novelty than a given. They describe the two sides of a single-playing vinyl record, also known as a 45. “B-side” has come to denote a lesser-known or less-significant song, as the A-side is traditionally the single that plays on the radio. Don’t snooze on the B-side, though — sometimes those tracks are considered the best ones. (The Beatles’ “I Am the Walrus,” for example, was the B-side for the 1967 single “Hello Goodbye.”)
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Demo
A demo is a rudimentary, often-unpolished recording made to display the abilities of a musician or a band, and then be presented to record labels, DJs, and agents. The word is a shortened version of “demonstration,” and this particular usage has been around almost as long as the rock ‘n’ roll genre itself. One of its earliest appearances in print was in a 1962 issue of Billboard: “Denny said he’ll often hear a song one day, make a demo of it the next morning, and it will be recorded by some name artist the same afternoon.”
Jam
Traditionally, “to jam” means “to squeeze or pack tightly into a specified space.” Colloquially, though, particularly in circles of musicians, “jam” can be used as a noun or verb to denote a spontaneous burst of playing music. You might meet up with a friend to jam, or to have a jam session. The word emerged in jazz circles around the late 1920s and early ’30s, but it has come to be used by musicians across genres. The jam subgenre of rock ‘n’ roll is characterized by bands such as the Grateful Dead and Phish, who play songs that can meander for upwards of 30 minutes.
Fuzz
In general, “fuzz” refers to any fluffy or frizzy mass of fiber. In rock ‘n’ roll music, it’s a buzzing or distorted sound, especially when deliberately produced as an effect on an electric guitar. The etymology related to music is a bit … fuzzy, but early proponents of distorted guitar playing were blues guitarists — notably Elmore James and Buddy Guy, who were trying to recreate on a guitar the raw vocals of singers such as Muddy Waters and Howlin’ Wolf, among others.
Featured image credit: Greyson Joralemon/ Unsplash
Mandy Brownholtz is a writer and editor based in Baltimore, MD. She is the Managing Editor of "CREEM Magazine," and her work has appeared in the "New York Times," "Insider," and elsewhere. She has also written a novel entitled "Rotten."
Let’s take a trip back to some basic grammar lessons and relearn a few we might have forgotten. From ordering subjects and verbs to deciding how to show possession, we naturally use these grammar rules in everyday speech.
One of the most important steps in becoming a better writer is brushing up on basic grammar rules. That’s not to say that your favorite novelists or inspirational writers are perfect grammarians — they probably have a team of editors behind them. However, to write with style and flair, one must understand the rules in order to bend them. For some of us, it’s likely been decades since we learned the fundamentals. However, we naturally use basic grammar rules in everyday speech, such as when we’re ordering subjects and verbs and deciding how to show possession. Let’s take a trip back to these lessons and relearn some we might have forgotten.
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Every Sentence Must Have a Subject and a Verb
Students are taught that every sentence needs a subject and a verb in order to make sense, but an object is not always necessary.
Subject-verb sentence:Ben laughed.
Subject-verb-object sentence:Ben laughed at the TV.
Both sentences make sense, but adding an object (“the TV”) in the second provides additional context.
Subject-object sentence:Ben at the TV.
This is an incorrect and incomplete sentence without the verb “laughed.” We would never use a “subject-object” sentence because it doesn’t mean anything.
Parts of Sentences Have a Specific Order
Just as a sentence must have a subject and a verb (and possibly an object), these parts must go in a specific order. Native speakers don’t really think of what order to put them in (it just rolls off the tongue), but there are specific grammar rules for this.
A positive sentence affirms a proposition. These sentences usually follow the order of “subject + verb + object.”
Mary rode the bus.
Rode Mary the bus.
A negative sentence states that something is untrue or incorrect by using a negative word. These sentences usually follow the order of “subject + auxiliary verb + ‘not’ + main verb + object.”
Mary did not ride the bus.
Mary ride the bus did not.
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Parts of Questions Have a Specific Order
Just as a specific order is required for sentences, the same holds true for questions.
The present simple question form is one of the most basic ways to ask a question in English. These questions usually follow the order of “question word + auxiliary verb + subject + infinitive.”
What does Mary ride to school?
What Mary does ride to school?
The yes/no question is another basic way to ask a question, but it doesn’t include a question word. These questions usually follow the order of “auxiliary verb + subject + infinitive.”
Does Mary ride the bus?
Mary ride the bus does?
The Animacy Hierarchy for Nouns (or How To Show Possession)
This sounds complicated, but young children have mastered it. There are two ways to show possession in English: by using an apostrophe with an “s,” or by using “of.”
Example:That is Sally’s bike.
Example: The final hour of the lecture dragged on.
Notice how swapping the form of possession in these sentences makes them sound unusual:
That is the bike of Sally.
The lecture’s final hour dragged on.
The animacy hierarchy states that in English, we tend to use an apostrophe + “s” possessive for humans and animals, and “of” for inanimate objects.
My dog's collar fell off.
The collar of my dog fell off.
The color of the sweater faded.
The sweater's color faded.
Of course, there is a gray area. Some people might prefer the latter option of “The sweater’s color faded.” It’s not exactly incorrect, but it’s nonstandard. Linguists have narrowed down the speaker’s decision to their identification or empathy with the entity, or to what extent they treat it as an animate object.
Notice the difference in sentences in relation to the speaker’s feelings toward the sweater. “My favorite sweater’s color faded” sounds more natural than “The boy’s sweater’s color faded.” We would probably say: “The color of the boy’s sweater faded.” We adhere to this flow naturally, so it might not feel like a true grammar rule, but as the term “animacy hierarchy” suggests, linguists have paid attention to it.
Rachel is a Washington, D.C.-based freelance writer. When she's not writing, you can find her wandering through a museum, exploring a new city, or advocating the importance of the Oxford comma.
Common Grammatical Errors That Make Editors Cringe
Everyone makes mistakes, especially when it comes to grammar. Let’s go over some of the most common grammatical errors in the English language and how to avoid them.
Everyone makes mistakes, especially when it comes to grammar. These slips typically consist of errors in punctuation, syntax, and word choice. While small mistakes are nothing to lose sleep over, repeated grammatical errors can make your work look unpolished and unprofessional. Even worse, some mistakes can change your intended meaning and lead to confusion. Let’s go over some of the most common grammatical errors in the English language and how to avoid them.
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Your vs. You’re, etc.
Homophones are words that have the same pronunciation but different meanings, origins, or spellings. These make up some of the most common errors in English, with “your” vs. “you’re” as a prime example. “Your” is a possessive pronoun, a way of indicating that something belongs to another person. “You’re” is a contraction of “you are” and is not used to indicate possession. Folks also often mess up “who’s” vs. “whose” (the former is a contraction of “who is,” while “whose” is the possessive form of “who”) and “they’re” vs. “their” (“they’re” is a contraction of “they are,” and “their” is the possessive form of “they”).
That vs. Which
These words can function as several parts of speech, but here we’re using them as relative pronouns. Both “that” and “which” can introduce relative clauses that provide additional context to a sentence. For example: “This is the house that Jack built.” The correct relative pronoun to use depends on what you are referring to, which is how people often get tripped up. Use“that”to introduce a clause that adds necessary information to a sentence, and use “which” to introduce a clause that adds detail but no critical information to the sentence. Compare the following:
Don’t use the milk that has spoiled.
I also got this creamer, which is made from almond milk.
We use “that” in the first sentence because it is giving critical information — you wouldn’t want anyone to get sick from spoiled milk. With the second sentence, the explanation following the comma is nice to know, but it isn’t essential. Deciding between “that” and “which” is a nuanced judgment, but once you’ve decided, construction matters. Always precede the “which” clause with a comma.
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Then vs. Than
“Then” and “than” are near homophones, which makes them easy to mix up. Here’s how to differentiate between them: “Then” refers to when something will happen, while “than” is used to compare people or things. (If you need a mnemonic device, remember “then” and “happen” both end in “en.”)
Each and Every
This may seem a bit nitpicky, but the goal is for you to spot your errors before someone else does. “Each” refers to two items. “Every” refers to three or more items. You also should use “each” when referring to the individual items in a group, and use “every” to refer to a group as a whole.
Each of my two dogs got a treat after our walk.
Every one of my cousins is coming to my wedding.
The difference here is slight, but it exists: Each of the two dogs got their own treat, whereas all of the many cousins are going to the wedding.
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Possessive Nouns
A possessive noun is the version that indicates ownership. Typically, an apostrophe and the letter “s” are added to turn a noun into a possessive, but folks frequently put the apostrophe in the wrong place. For a singular possessive noun, add the apostrophe followed by the letter “s”: “Susanne’s cat,” “the man’s car.” The same goes for a singular possessive noun that already ends in “s”: “the actress’s performance,” “the witness’s statement.” (Think about how you pronounce these to help you remember the double “s.”) For a plural possessive noun ending in “s,” the apostrophe goes after the “s”: “the students’ school.” But for a plural possessive noun not ending in “s,” add an apostrophe and an “s”: “the children’s toys,” “the alumni’s donations.” These rules generally apply to proper nouns as well, though some style guides — such as the AP Stylebook — have different guidelines.
Commas
The comma is likely the most versatile punctuation mark, but it’s also among the most misused. In general, commas are used for separation, and to create short pauses in sentences; they can separate items in a list and distinguish independent clauses.
Incorrect: I bought cleaning supplies paper towels and bandages at Target.
Correct: I bought cleaning supplies, paper towels, and bandages at Target.
There is some debate between fellow word nerds about the Oxford comma — also known as the “serial comma” — which is the comma used after the penultimate item in a list of three or more items (e.g., the one after “paper towels” above). Some style guides dictate its use, but it is ultimately optional, and usage depends on what and where you are writing. This cartoon is an apt explanation for why leaving out an Oxford comma can be confusing for your reader.
Featured image credit: Lamai Prasitsuwan/ Shutterstock
Mandy Brownholtz is a writer and editor based in Baltimore, MD. She is the Managing Editor of "CREEM Magazine," and her work has appeared in the "New York Times," "Insider," and elsewhere. She has also written a novel entitled "Rotten."
Just because a slang term is popping up all over social media or being used in real life, doesn’t mean it automatically gets added to the dictionary. For a word to be added to the pages (or web pages) of a dictionary, it has to demonstrate staying power. Many new expressions drop out of use before a lexicographer takes note, but some popular colloquialisms (such as “baller, “cromulent,” and “fluffernutter”) have successfully achieved the ranks of lexicographical immortality. Words that get added to the dictionary aren’t always new bits of slang, of course; they might be words used in news headlines or terms coined in the entertainment industry. Let’s take a look at some of the neologisms (new words) that have entered the annals of American English in recent years.
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Baller
“Baller” gained a new usage on its definition in the year 2022, thanks to Merriam-Webster. As an informal slang term, “baller” describes something “excellent, exciting, or extraordinary,” especially relating to a lavish lifestyle, as in, “It was clear from his frequent trips on his private jet that the actor lived a baller lifestyle.” This usage of “baller” traces back to 2003, but its oldest usage, which denotes an athlete who plays a sport involving a ball, has been around since 1586.
Cringe
The word “cringe” is nothing new; the verb form, describing an act of recoiling out of distaste or fear, has been around since the 13th century. More recently, however, “cringe” has turned into an adjective and was awarded a new definition in 2022. This usage redefines it as a slang term synonymous with “embarrassing” or “awkward,” as in, “That first kiss scene was so cringe!”
Cromulent
On February 18, 1996, the word “cromulent” appeared during an airing of The Simpsons in the episode “Lisa the Iconoclast.” In one scene, teachers are talking about the word “embiggen” — another made-up word that was added to the dictionary by Merriam-Webster back in 2018. One teacher says to the other, “[Embiggen is] a perfectly cromulent word,” thus establishing “cromulent” to mean “fine or acceptable.” After decades of being quoted by Simpsons fans, “cromulent” was formally added to the dictionary in September 2023.
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Dad Bod
Forget about chiseled abs and rippling biceps — dad bods are all the rage. The phrase describes a physique that lacks muscular definition and tends to have a bit of a belly. “Dad bod” can be used to describe bodies regardless of the person’s familial status, but it often describes a type of man who was perhaps more physically fit in his youth before his body changed around the time people usually have kids. The expression was reportedly coined in 2003, though it took 18 years for the word to be formally enshrined in the Merriam-Webster dictionary. It has its uses, such as, “My dad bod appreciates wearing shorts to work from home instead of suits to the office,” but always tread carefully in commenting on anyone’s appearance.
Deepfake
The term “deepfake” is a neologism that was coined in 2018, and then formally added to the dictionary two years later. The word refers to photos or videos that have been manipulated in an effort to misrepresent the subject. In essence, people use advanced digital editing technology to create content that tricks the public. For example, a video might show a politician saying something shocking, even though they never said it in real life. One potential use of the word could be, “Did you see that deepfake of Tom Hanks? It was really convincing, but I knew he wouldn’t actually say that.”
Faux-hawk
“Faux-hawks” are nothing new, as the hairstyle trend dates back to the late 1990s and early 2000s, when the term was first knowingly coined. But it wasn’t until 2021 that the term was officially added to the dictionary with a definition describing a hairstyle featuring a “central ridge of upright hair but with the sides gathered.” Essentially, faux-hawks look like mohawks, only without the added risk of shaving the sides of your head and immediately regretting it. People use the term in sentences such as, “Did you see his faux-hawk? He looks really good!”
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Fluffernutter
It may not be part of a well-balanced diet, but a fluffernutter is one of the most decadent sandwiches imaginable. This gooey treat — said to have been invented by Massachusetts resident Emma Curits in 1918 — contains marshmallow spread and peanut butter slathered between slices of white bread. However, the name “fluffernutter” wasn’t technically coined until an advertising campaign for Marshmallow Fluff in the 1960s, and it wasn’t recorded in the dictionary until 2021.
Jorts
Love ’em or hate ’em, “jorts” are here to stay, solidified by Merriam-Webster’s inclusion of the plural noun in the dictionary in 2023. This bold — and sometimes regrettable — fashion trend is simply a pair of shorts made of denim, as if you cut a pair of jeans off above the knee. They gained popularity amid the 1960s counterculture movement, and now future generations will remain aware of the power of jorts.
Kayfabe
The world of professional wrestling is full of terms such as “face” and “heel,” which are used respectively to describe good and evil wrestlers. But in 2023, a unique wrestling industry term was officially enshrined in the dictionary: “kayfabe.” This word means “a tacit agreement between professional wrestlers and their fans to pretend that overtly staged wrestling events… are genuine.” There are a few theories on the origin of the term, one being a Pig Latin-esque version of “fake,” but “kayfabe” has been common parlance in wrestling circles since the 1980s. Now you can be in the know and say things like, “I know pro wrestling is scripted, but believing in kayfabe makes it fun.”
Metaverse
This 2022 buzzword describes an environment of multiple virtual realities that are individualized for each user. At the end of 2021, the social-media supergiant Facebook rebranded itself as “Meta,” both reinforcing the notion of the metaverse and further solidifying the word’s legitimacy in English, eventually landing it a spot in the dictionary. The secondary definition of “metaverse” is used in the field of cosmology in a similar way to refer to the hypothetical combination of all universes.
Microtransaction
Video games and apps are full of “microtransactions,” which are “online transactions involving a small amount of currency.” If you download a game or an app, odds are, the developer will make additional features available for purchase. This includes new virtual outfits, stat boosts, in-game shortcuts, extra lives, and more. The term first reared its head in 1995, and today is often used by frustrated gamers who may exclaim, “I wish I could just play the game and stop being inundated with all these microtransactions.”
Shrinkflation
If you’ve noticed less cereal in your bag, you aren’t alone, and you’re a victim of “shrinkflation.” This phenomenon involves reducing the volume (or amount) of a product per unit without lowering the price. In the case of many consumer goods, buyers are paying the same price for less of an item. The snappy word — a portmanteau of “shrink” and “inflation” — was first coined in 2013 before being added to the dictionary in 2022.
Jennifer A. Freeman is the Senior Editor of Word Smarts and Word Daily. When she's not searching for a perfect synonym or reaching "Genius" level on Spelling Bee, she's playing with her Welsh Terrier in Greenville, SC.
While the relationship between modern America and Indigenous tribes is complicated at best, a trip through the roots of the state names reminds us of our rich, diverse history and the people who lived here before us.
The names of the 50 states are as diverse as the people and cultures within them. While the exact etymology of these names has been debated (and in some cases lost over the years), almost half of them owe tribute to the Indigenous tribes who lived on the continent long before state borders existed. While the relationship between modern America and Indigenous peoples is complicated at best, a trip through the roots of the state names reminds us of our rich, diverse history.
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Alabama
Many U.S. states were named after waterways, and “Alabama” comes from the name of the river that European explorers named after local Indigenous people — possibly the Alabamas or Alibamons. The tribal name (in several different spellings) appeared in written accounts of the Hernando de Soto expedition of 1540.
Alaska
Alaska’s name has ties both to Russian settlers who sold the land to the United States in 1867, and to the native Aleut people. Russians referred to the land as Аляска, while the Aleut referred to it as Alyeska, both of which mean “great land.” This is fitting, given that the state is larger than Texas, California, and Montana combined.
Arizona
Some historians believe “Arizona” came from a Tohono O’odham name that sounded like Aleh-zon or Ali-Shonak, meaning “small spring” or “place of the small spring,” respectively. However, there is some dispute about this, since springs don’t necessarily come to mind with the dry heat and desert of Arizona. An alternative theory is that the name is a Basque word that means “the good oak tree,” which would have come from Spanish missionaries.
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Arkansas
While “Kansas” is tucked inside the spelling of this state, the two names don’t have the same origins. “Arkansas” comes from the French pronunciation of an Algonquin name for the native Quapaw people, Akansa. It literally means “south wind” or “downstream,” appropriate in the sense that the Quapaw people lived just downstream from the much larger Algonquin tribe. The spelling and pronunciation were all over the place until the state passed a law in the 19th century, spelling it as “Arkansas” and pronouncing it “AR-kan-saw.”
Connecticut
“Connecticut” stems from the Mohegan word Quinnehtukqut, meaning “beside the long tidal river.” The Dutch adapted it when they arrived in 1614, and it became permanent when the area became a state in 1788.
Hawaii
The state of Hawai’i is made up of eight islands named Ni’ihau, Kaua’i, O’ahu, Moloka’i, Lana’i, Maui, Kaho’olawe, and the Big Island of Hawai’i. There are many myths and legends about the origins of these names, but the most popular is that “Hawai’i” comes from Hawai’iloa, the name of the legendary voyager and discoverer of the islands, and most of the other island names come from his descendants.
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Iowa
If you’ve ever felt a bit sleepy while driving through the fields of Iowa, it makes sense, because the state name comes from the tribal name ayuxwa, which means “one who puts one to sleep.” When European settlers came through, the English spelled it “Ioway” and the French spelled it “Ayoua.”
Kansas
Given Kansas’ reputation for powerful tornados, the roots of its name aren’t surprising. It comes from the Kansa tribe who lived in the area, with the name loosely translating to “people of the south wind.”
Kentucky
The land now called Kentucky was home to many different Indigenous tribes, so there are multiple possible name-origin stories, though they all have Native American roots. One suggests that the name comes from the Wyandot tribal word for “plain.” Another posits that it comes from the Haudenosaunee word for “prairie.”
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Massachusetts
The Massachuset tribe in the early 17th century likely numbered around 3,000 people living along what is now the Massachusetts coast. The name “Massachuset” means “at or about the great hill” in the Algonquin language. The Massachuset people were virtually wiped out by disease by the 1630s, but the state of Massachusetts was named after them.
Michigan
The largest of the Great Lakes is also named Michigan, which is appropriate since “Michigan” comes from an Ojibwa word, michi-gama, meaning “large lake.”
Minnesota
The consensus is clear that Minnesota was named after the Minnesota River, and that Mni is the Dakota tribe’s word for “water.” But sota gets cloudy — literally. Some historians think the word means “cloudy,” while others say it’s “sky-tinted.” Both are decent origin stories for the land of 10,000 lakes.
Mississippi
“Mississippi,” like “Illinois,” comes from the French interpretation of a Native American word. This one is a variation of the Algonquin phrase misi sipi, meaning “big water” or “great river.”
Missouri
The nickname of the Missouri River is “Big Muddy,” but there was a Sioux tribe called the Missouri, and their name translates to “wooden canoe people.”
Nebraska
The Oto people (of the Siouan language group) used the word nebrathka to mean “flat river.” Nebrathka was later adapted for the state of Nebraska.
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North and South Dakota
The land that makes up these states was part of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. The Dakota Territory was created in 1861, and the individual states were admitted to the union in 1889. But long before that, “Dakota” was the name of a Sioux tribe. The word also means “friend” or “ally” in the Sioux language.
Following the Civil War, a delegation of tribal leaders went to Washington, D.C., to resume formal relationships with the U.S. government. One of the proposals was the creation of an Indian territory, which the Choctaw delegate proposed naming “Oklahumma” (okla means “people” and humma means “red” in Choctaw), loosely translated to “Territory of the Red People.” The spelling evolved to “Oklahoma,” and it remained when the Indian and Oklahoma territories became one state in 1907.
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Tennessee
Tennessee’s name is a bit of a mystery. There was a Cherokee tribe located at a village called Tanasse (or possibly spelled “Tennese”), but any further origin is largely unknown. The state was named for the principal river, but the meaning of the word is considered to be lost.
Texas
The long-accepted origin of the name “Texas” is that it came from a Caddo word for “ally” or “friend,” which was adapted by Spaniards into tejas, which turned into “Texas.” There have been some different spellings (and possibly entirely different stories), but most Texans are happy to stick with the Indigenous Caddo greeting teysha, meaning “hello, friend.”
Utah
“Utah”likely owes its roots to the Apache word yuttahih, which means “high places” or “people who live in high places.” This stuck with the settlers who used it to describe the Indigenous people they encountered in the mountains.
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Wisconsin
“Wisconsin” comes from the Miami wordmeskonsing, which is what the local tribe called the river that runs through the state. Historians believe the word translates closely to “the stream meanders through something red,” with the “something red” being Wisconsin’s sandstone bluffs.
Wyoming
Some believe “Wyoming” originates in the Lenape word chwewamink, meaning “big river flat.” However, the Lenape didn’t live in Wyoming, so the theory is that settlers borrowed the word from a place name in Pennsylvania. It also could stem from the Delaware people’s mecheweami-ing, meaning “at the big plains.” Either way, it articulates the vastness of that state’s great outdoors.
Featured image credit: Brian A Jackson/ Shutterstock
Jennifer A. Freeman is the Senior Editor of Word Smarts and Word Daily. When she's not searching for a perfect synonym or reaching "Genius" level on Spelling Bee, she's playing with her Welsh Terrier in Greenville, SC.
Puns, silly turns of phrase, and the groan-worthy dad joke are not modern inventions. Whether you’re looking to lighten the mood, reconnect with a friend, or make a child laugh, here are a few historical favorites that are as effective now as ever.
Puns, silly turns of phrase, and the groan-worthy dad joke are not modern inventions. Plenty of text-based giggles were available before memes took over the internet. Whether you’re looking to lighten the mood, reconnect with a friend, or make a child laugh, here are a few historical favorites that are as effective now as ever.
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Great for Fans of The Good Place
Immanuel isn’t a pun. He Kant be!
Playwright and poet Oscar Wilde was known for his wry wit and creative puns. He once joked about the famous philosopher and Enlightenment thinker Immanuel Kant. In Wilde’s joke, Kant’s name does double duty to jab at how seriously philosophers take their work.
How Many Does He Want?
A Roman walks into a bar.
He holds up two fingers and says, "Five beers, please!"
For those who need a visual interpretation, throw up your pointer and middle fingers to make the Roman numeral five (V).
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The Government Is Always a Punchline
In my many years, I have come to the conclusion that one useless man is a shame, two is a law firm, and three or more is a congress.
Often misattributed to President John Adams, this humorous quote actually comes from the Broadway musical 1776, by Peter Stone. In Act 1 of the show, the future President throws out the line amid a sea of complaints about Congress. Our apologies to any lawyers or congresspeople.
Lying Through Wooden Teeth
Q: Why did George Washington have trouble sleeping?
A: Because he couldn’t lie.
This joke relies on the audience knowing whether “lay” or “lie” is correct, but puns with a double meaning will never go out of style. Teachers, save this one for your lesson on the multiple meanings of the verb “lie.”
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A Spring Joke for Thanksgiving
Q: If April showers bring May flowers, then what do May flowers bring?
A: Pilgrims.
It might take a minute, but the audience will certainly give a groan when they remember the Mayflower was the ship that brought the Pilgrims to the New World in 1620.
Drawing From History
A Frenchman walks into a library and asks for a book on warfare.
The librarian replies, "You’ll only lose it."
Whether warranted or not, France is the butt of many historical warfare jokes. Just avoid telling this one at a French restaurant.
Campaign Slogans Are Good for a Laugh
When Democratic presidential candidate Franklin Pierce ran for office in 1852, he took inspiration from his predecessor, James K. Polk.
Pierce’s campaign became, “We Polked You in ’44, We Shall Pierce You in ’52.”
The cheesy slogan might induce an eye roll, but it seemed to work, as Pierce was the next Democratic candidate to enter the White House.
Who Said That?
Denial ain’t just a river in Egypt.
American humorist and writer Mark Twain is credited with many punny mottos, including this playful take on the Nile River in Egypt. There’s no proof that Twain ever uttered this particular phrase, but it has appeared in Saturday Night Live skits, in musician David Crosby’s autobiography, and in an op-ed about global warming by former Vice President Al Gore.
A Bonus for the Kids
Q: Why were the early days of history called "the Dark Ages"?
A: Because there were so many knights!
Jennifer A. Freeman is the Senior Editor of Word Smarts and Word Daily. When she's not searching for a perfect synonym or reaching "Genius" level on Spelling Bee, she's playing with her Welsh Terrier in Greenville, SC.
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