In a world increasingly overrun with AI-generated content, a recent rumor is making the rounds: If it contains em dashes, it wasn’t written by a human. This notion is mostly unfounded — em dashes (the long dash in this sentence) and other types of punctuation marks aren’t clear AI hallmarks. However, it’s likely the AI tool was trained on writing that used em dashes a bit too liberally, creating writing output scattered with the punctuation mark. Perhaps some writers could stand to exercise more restraint when it comes to wielding the mighty em dash.

“Em” stands for the letter “M,” as the “—” is about the same width as the letter, and the en dash (–) is the width of an “N.” The em dash is the longest, most dramatic punctuation mark in the dash family. It can function as a comma, semicolon, or parentheses, creating a pause or offsetting information with flair. Meanwhile, the more modest en dash and simple hyphen have quieter roles, connecting number ranges and forming compound words, respectively. They’re typically marked safe from overuse. But the em dash? It has become a teacher’s pet among punctuation marks, volunteering at every opportunity.

Reserve em dashes for moments of abrupt thought or emphasis, as in, “She couldn’t believe it — a surprise party!” or “The new TV series — starring Brad Pitt, Matt Damon, and George Clooney — is getting rave reviews.” In these instances, no other type of punctuation would garner the same pause or excitement. But remember, the more often you deploy the em dash, the less impact it will have.

While it’s undeniably popular in modern communication, the em dash has been around since 1836, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. The mark first made headway in poetry, and by the 20th century, it was nearly impossible to find a poet who didn’t use it. Consider Robert Frost’s memorable lines from The Road Not Taken (1916): “Two roads diverged in a wood, and I — I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference.” The use of a different punctuation mark is unthinkable.

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Even Shakespeare adopted an early form of a long dash to indicate pauses in his playwriting, revealing a long-standing desire to build suspense or amplify drama by using this clever piece of punctuation. Just remember to take a page from Shakespeare’s playbook and use it only when necessary to make a lasting impression.

When it comes to pluralizing standard English nouns, the rules are relatively straightforward: Add an “-s” to the end of most words, or in some cases, “-es” or “-ies.” However, things become more complicated when dealing with words of Latin origin. For example, “focus” (from the Latin focus, meaning “hearth” or “fireplace”) follows a traditional Latin form of pluralization: Drop the “-us” and add “-i.” This turns one “focus” into multiple “foci,” as in, “The press conference identified several key foci for further investigation.” 

That said, if “foci” feels too formal or unfamiliar, there is an alternative. Per Merriam-Webster (and other language authorities), the plural version “focuses” is perfectly acceptable. This variant, which follows standard English pluralization patterns, may feel more natural to native English speakers. Consider this version: “The press conference identified several key focuses…“ This pattern tracks with other Latin-root terms ending in “-us,” such as “thesaurus.” It can be pluralized using the Latin version, “thesauri,” or in the English-friendly way, “thesauruses” (although the latter sounds like a resident of Jurassic Park, IMO).

Other Latin plurals are known to cause grammar mayhem. Some Latin terms ending in “-um” adopt an “-a” in the plural, as seen in “curriculum,” which becomes “curricula” — “The professors had their curricula ready for the new semester.” The word “media” also follows this pluralization pattern. Though “media” is often used in the singular and plural today, it was initially only plural, and the singular version was “medium.” English plural rules have been layered on top of the Latin with “media,” as we might hear a newscaster say something like: “The medias from the involved countries will be present at the closing ceremony.” 

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In the same way, a podium can become multiple podia, and more than one stadium would technically be stadia. However, we often see the plural forms written as “podiums” and “stadiums,” indicating that Latin-derived words are prone to dual plurals that better align with modern English norms.

Whether you choose “foci” and “fungi” or “focuses” and “funguses,” pluralization of Latin-derived words is often a matter of preference and context. While the Latin plural remains the more formal choice, the anglicized version is widely accepted.

Question: I found your article on “Flat Adverbs” quite interesting. I am working in a medical facility alongside much younger co-workers. We often need to tell patients to hold their breaths, and then to release the breath. I grew up with plain old adverbs. I will direct the patients to “take a breath in and hold,” and then say, “Breathe normally.” Almost all of my younger co-workers will direct the patients to “take a breath in and hold,” and then say, “Breathe normal.” Am I to presume that we are both correct, and they are using flat adverbs?

Answer: 

Thank you so much for sending in your question and providing your observant example. In the previous article that explained flat adverbs, we talked about how most adverbs can be spotted by their “-ly” ending. But the spelling isn’t what makes an adverb — the true differentiator is that an adverb describes a verb or an adjective. Flat adverbs do not have the “-ly” ending, but they still describe a verb or an adjective, so they are indeed adverbs. Typical flat adverbs include “hard,” “fast,” “high,” and “near.” Those words can also be adjectives, but here’s an example where they all function as adverbs: “James ran fast, his heart pounding as he pushed himself hard. The sun sat high in the sky, and the finish line drew near”

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The example with your co-workers brings up another interesting aspect of flat adverbs — they can be created. You say “breathe normally,” and that is a correct adverb usage. Your colleagues, when they say “breathe normal,” are dropping the “-ly” from the adverb and turning “normal” into a flat adverb. It may sound strange to your ears, but it is indeed a perfectly acceptable, albeit informal, usage. An academic assignment might take off points in the grading (we haven’t seen the rubric), but in verbal communication, the meaning is clear. To double check our work, we verified this informal grammatical usage with the Britannica Dictionary — it gives it a green light, too. Breathe easy, because you’re both correct with your adverb usage.

Do you have a grammar conundrum or a word etymology you’d like us to hunt down? Drop us a note!